an enhanced design for Deep & Fast WALE preambles (RapidM RM12 HF modem?)

This post briefly summarizes the analysis of the Deep & Fast WALE waveforms seen so far, discussing in particular the acquisition preambles whose formation does not comply with the reference standard 188-141D (Appendix G, WALE or 4G-ALE). Some indications suggest that the monitored transmissions could be trials of a specific WALE implementation by Rapid Mobile adopted in their newest RM12 HF modem, but at present it's only a my guess.

1. Preamble
The preamble is used for rapid initial synchronization and provides time and frequency alignment. Both the Deep WALE and Fast WALE preambles use 4-ary orthogonal Walsh modulation by mapping each di-bit of the preamble sequence to "normal" or "exceptional" sets of 4-element Walsh repeated sequences.

 Walsh Sequences for WALE Preambles (MIL 188-141D, Table G-VIII)

Each 32-element is then scrambled by performing a modulo 8 addition between the PSK8 symbol sequence below and the corresponding Walsh element
{7,1,1,3,7,3,1,5,5,1,1,6,7,1,5,4,1,7,1,6,3,6,1,0,4,1,0,7,5,5,2,6}

2. Deep WALE
Deep WALE uses a 240 ms preamble consisting of 18 orthogonal Walsh modulated channel symbols. The first 14 fixed di-bits {0,1,2,1,0,0,2,3,1,3,3,1,2,0} are fixed, the final four di-bits are protocol-dependent and mapped using the "exceptional" 32-element Walsh sequences set. Each 32-element is then scrambled in accordance with 1. for a resulting sequence  of 576 PSK8 symbols.

Fig. 1 - Deep WALE preamble

I coded a C++ Deep WALE modulator in order to get a (synthesized) 188-141D compliant bitstream and then compare it to the bitstreams got by demodulating the (real) over-the-air Deep WALE calls extracted from a monitoring file. Since I was only interested on the preamble formation, to simplify the code I used a random generator in place of the 192 coded and interleaved PDU bits;  the "modulator" is limited to the PSK8 symbol mapping  (1).

Fig. 2

 

Sumarizing what seen in the previous posts, durations and symbols "into the game" are shown in Table I below:

Table I - comparison between real (on-air) and sythesized Deep WALE PDUs

As expected from the time-based analysis, the comparison of the bitstreams confirms that the real signals differ from the standard ones in the way their preamble is formed: specifically the real preambles have a longer duration (350 ms, 840 PSK8 symbols) and do not have sequence repeats (autocorrelation = 0). Conversely, the inevitable repetitions of the scrambling sequence during the formation of the synthesized preamble cause a 96-bit/32-symbols ACF (on the right of figure 3).

Fig. 3- on-air (left) and sythesized (right) DeepWALE bitstreams

The symbols of the real & synt preambles are shown below in figure 4:

Fig. 4

3. Fast WALE

As per 188-141D, Fast WALE uses a 120 ms preamble consisting of 9 orthogonal Walsh modulated channel symbols. The first 5 di-bits {3,3,1,2,0} are fixed, the final four di-bits are protocol-dependent and mapped using the exceptional set. Conversely to Deep modulation, the final two di-bits are unused and are set to 0. Each 32-element Walsh sequence of the preamble is scrambled in accordance with 1. for a resulting sequencetotal of 288 PSK8 symbols. By the way, the duration of the preamble is the same of the following coded and interleaved data frame and it's the half of the Deep WALE preamble.

Fig. 5 - Fast WALE preamble

A second C++ "sketch" was coded to produce a (synthesized) 188-141D compliant bitstream to be compared with the ones coming from the demodulation of the real signals. As in the previous code, a random generator is used in place of the coded and interleaved data bits.
From the analysis of the recordings I was able to detect at least four types(!) of Fast WALE framing which differ in the length of the preambles (figure 6) while keeping the duration - and therefore the symbols - of the data portion unchanged (120 ms, 288 PSK8 symbols) .

Fig. 6 - different Fast WALE framings

Table II - comparison between real (on-air) and sythesized Fast WALE PDUs

As in Deep modulation, the on-air preambles have no sequence repeats even when their duration matches the standard 240 ms; in the other cases, duration and therefore the number of symbols, are less than the ones specified in the standard. Figures 7,8 depict such differences, notice the 32 known symbols probes in both the bitstreams and the 96-bit/32-symbols ACF of the synthesized preamble.

Fig. 7 - on-air and sythesized Fast WALE bitstreams

Fig. 8

 

4. "RapidM RM12 modem" supposition
Unless there are other protocol "options" that I'm not aware of, the differences between the analyzed preambles and those described by 188-141D are due to a specific (proprietary?) implementation. In this regard, my friend ANgazu found an interesting document by Rapid Mobile - literally entitled "Considerations for Synchronization Enhancements for 4G/WALE" - where two proposed improvements to the WALE synchronization preambles are illustrated. Specifically, the second proposal presented by RapidM (slide 18, "WALE Enhanced Preamble") perfectly fits with durations and symbols of the on-air signals:

As said, according 188-141D every Walsh Symbol repeats the same scrambling sequence

{7,1,1,3,7,3,1,5,5,1,1,6,7,1,5,4,1,7,1,6,3,6,1,0,4,1,0,7,5,5,2,6} 

and such repetitions have detrimental effect on synchronization acquisition performance: avoiding such on-air repetitions during the preamble removes false peaks in acquisition correlations. RapidM "Enhanced Preamble" proposal just consists of the replacement of the scrambled sequences with CAZAC sequences (2) consisting of 168 PSK8 symbols for Fast WALE and 840 PSK8 symbols for Deep WALE (the other proposal concerns a 448-symbol extended scrambling sequence).
By the way, figure 9 shows the measured autocorrelations for on-air and synthesized preambles of both Deep & Fast WALE PDUs.

Fig. 9 - autocorrelations

The RapidM slides, which also announce the upcoming RM12 48kHz Wideband Modem, were presented at the HFIA meeting of March 2020: since the first WALE signals I could analyze date back January 2021, timings are consistent.

If my guesses are right, the analyzed transmissions could just be trials by RapidM, also because - at the time of writing - the RM12 modem is not yet in their catalog [1]. However, I haven't found any confirmation yet and furthermore there are some other aspects, such as the lack of the 1800 Hz carrier in the preamble sectors or the CAZAC sequences formation, which need further investigation. Probably the lack of the carrier during the preamble modulation (figure 10) is due to the "tone excision" feature, since the suppression of the 1800 Hz tone improves the waveform resilience and performance in the presence of channel interference [2]: that's another (RapidM?) enhancement to the WALE preamble.

Fig. 10 - the lack of the carrier in a Deep WALE PDU preamble

https://disk.yandex.com/d/CQum1JvCqMzEFQ

[1] https://www.rapidm.com/
[2] https://www.rapidm.com/standard/stanag-4539/ 

(1) C++ code for Deep WALE PDU formation (Arduino Mega-2560)

char buffer[60];
int preamble[18] = {0,1,2,1,0,0,2,3,1,3,3,1,2,0,0,0,0,0};
int pScramble[32] = {7,1,1,3,7,3,1,5,5,1,1,6,7,1,5,4,1,7,1,6,3,6,1,0,4,1,0,7,5,5,2,6};

int preambNorWalsh[4][32] = {
{0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0},
{0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4},
{0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4},
{0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0}
};

int preambExcWalsh[4][32] = {
{0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4},
{0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0},
{0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0},
{0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4}
};

int pduWalsh[16][64] = {
{0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0},
{0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4},
{0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4},
{0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0},
{0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4},
{0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0},
{0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0},
{0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4},
{0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4},
{0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0},
{0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0},
{0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4},
{0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,0,0,0,0},
{0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,4,0,4,0,4,0,4,0,0,4,0,4},
{0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,0,0,4,4},
{0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0,0,4,4,0,4,0,0,4,4,0,0,4,0,4,4,0}
};

int shiftRegister[159] = {
0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1,
1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0,
1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0,
1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1,
0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1,
1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1,
1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0,
1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0,
1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1
};

void setup() {
  Serial.begin(9600);
}

void printBin(byte tribit) {
  for(int i=2; i>=0; i--){
    Serial.print(bitRead(tribit,i),BIN);
  }
  Serial.print(" ");
}

int getQuadbit(void) {
   return (random(16));   
}

int getTribit(void) {
  int bitout, bittap, bitin;
  int i,j;
  for(j=0; j<16; j++) {
    bitout = shiftRegister[158];
    bittap = shiftRegister[31];
      for(i=158;i>=1;i--){
        shiftRegister[i]=shiftRegister[i-1];
      }
    bitin = bitout^bittap;
    shiftRegister[0]=bitin;
  }
  return (shiftRegister[2]<<2)+(shiftRegister[1]<<1)+shiftRegister[0];
}

int doScramble (int a,int b) {
  if (a+b < 8) {
    return (a+b);
  }
  else {
    return (a+b-8);  
  }
}

void loop() {
  int scramblingSym;
  int tribit;
  int psk8;

  // preamble
  for (int i =0;i <14;i++){
    int y =preamble[i];
    for (scramblingSym=0;scramblingSym <32;scramblingSym++) {
      psk8 =doScramble(preambNorWalsh[y][scramblingSym],pScramble[scramblingSym]);
      Serial.println(psk8); //check        
    }
  }  
  for (int i =14;i <18;i++){
    int y =preamble[i];
    for (scramblingSym=0;scramblingSym <32;scramblingSym++) {
      psk8 =doScramble(preambExcWalsh[y][scramblingSym],pScramble[scramblingSym]);
      Serial.println(psk8); //check        
    }
  }  
    
  // PDU
  for (int quadBitSet =0;quadBitSet <48;quadBitSet++){
    int pduSymbol =getQuadbit();
    for (scramblingSym=0;scramblingSym <64;scramblingSym++) {
      tribit =getTribit();
      //printBin(getTribit()); //check    
      psk8 =doScramble(pduWalsh[pduSymbol][scramblingSym],tribit);
      Serial.println(psk8); //check    
      //sprintf(buffer, "Walsh modulated PDU symbol:%i  scrambling symbol:%i  PSK8:%i",pduWalsh[pduSymbol][scramblingSym],tribit,psk8);
      //Serial.println(buffer);        
    }
  }
  for( ; ; );
}


(2) Constant Amplitude Zero AutoCorrelation waveform (CAZAC) is a periodic complex-valued signal with modulus one and out-of-phase periodic (cyclic) autocorrelations equal to zero. CAZAC sequences find application in wireless communication systems for synchronization of mobile phones with base stations. Zadoff–Chu sequences are well-known CAZAC sequences with special properties. 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant_amplitude_zero_autocorrelation_waveform

WALE (4G-ALE) three-way traffic channel negotiation

This post can be considered a continuation of the previous one since it too is based on the observations and analyzes of the same monitoring file. Also in this case these are asynchronous calls but with the particularity of using three-way handshakes. 

Although the common protocol exchange for 4G-ALE link establishment is the two-way handshake, it may occurs a traffic channel negotiation which requires a three-way handshake. When sending a link setup request, the caller is able to measure occupancy in its assigned sub-channels, but will not generally know whether the Confirm PDU from the called station will be strong enough to overcome low-level local interference in some sub-channels. However, after measuring the SNR of the Confirm PDU, the caller may compute that there will be adequate SNR on sub-channel(s) that it initially reported as occupied. In such a case, the caller should send a Caller Confirm PDU with Rx sub-channel vector bits set to indicate the wider available traffic channel (figure 1),

Fig. 1 - example 3-Way Computation of Traffic Channel (188-141D Figure G-19)

However, as shown in figure 2, it's worh noting that in these samples no data traffic was recorded after the channel negotiations (the "responder" is here termed by me as "called").

Fig. 2 - contiguous 3-way handshakes

Aside from the 3-way handshakes, it must be noted that both "Deep" and "Fast" WALE waveforms are used throughout the same handshake (see figure 3) conversely to what specfied by 188-141D: " Either of the waveforms may be used in any transmission, but the same waveform shall be used throughout a transmission" (#G.5.1). The transmissions could also be Point-To-Multipoint (PTM) Async link setups and consequently the third burst could be actually the Confirm PDU from a "second" called node, however the (deprecated) mix of  waveforms still remains as well as the suspect that these are modified waveforms.

Fig. 3 - use of both Deep and Fast waveforms throughout the same handshakes

As said, this sample is not a "spot" one but it's extracted from a quite large monitoring file that has already been (partially) analyzed previously,  consequently it was logical to expect WALE PDUs with observed on-air durations different than the ones specified in the relevant 188-141D.

Fig. 4

As well as  the not-compliant durations of Deep and Fast PDUs (due to their preambles length), in my opinion  the lack of (expected) traffic after the 3-way channel negotiations and the "unusual" (if not deprecated) use of both Deep and Fast waveforms throughout a same transmission, are clues that reinforce the hypothesis of test transmissions aimed to verify the performance of modified 188-141D WALE waveforms and therefore of a "new" 4G HF modem... further analysis and investigations will follow in next posts.

https://disk.yandex.com/d/StTSEFMeLOXNkQ

Deep WALE (4G-ALE) Async call

Thanks to my friend and collegue ANgazu, I was able to analyze some WALE (4G-ALE, 188-141D App.G) asynchronous calls transmissions which reveal some aspects that are not entirely clear or even a bit discording with the relevant standard, at least according my analysis and the docs at my disposal. Perhaps it is some specific implementation or maybe tests, as a lot of 4G-ALE & wideband activity has been recently monitored in the 6.9 - 7 MHz portion. 

Fig. 1

As in the "Fast" WALE async call [1], the LSU Request PDU must be preceded by a scanning call (the so-called "capture probe") which is designed to capture asynchronously scanning receiver(s) so that they will stop scanning to receive the final LSU Request. The capture probe consists of repeated blocks of 96 known PSK8 symbols that permit rapid detection of the call, and therefore very short scanning dwell times. As in 2G and 3G ALE, the duration of the WALE scanning call dependes on the number of channels in the scan set and is as follows:
Tcapture ≥ Dmin(N+2)
where Dmin is the asynchronous-mode minimum dwell time (200 ms as default setting) and N is the number of channels. However, conversely of 2G and 3G ALE, the scanning call portion of the async WALE call is unaddressed: that is, the addresses of the stations are not sent during the capture probe (1).

Fig. 2 -  Deep WALE async call

In the sample being analyzed, after demodulation the 6000 ms capture probe consists of 150 blocks which corresponds to a scan set of 28 channels and confirms the use of the minimum dwell time (6000=200*30).

Fig. 3

As per 188-141D App.G, the capture probe is followed by a 240 ms acquisition preamble, followed in its turn by one (or more) coded and interleaved WALE Request PDU. The WALE LSU protocol use a fixed 96-bit length PDU for both Fast and Deep waveforms with a correction coding consists of a constraint length 9 (CL-9), half rate convolutional code producing a 192-bit coded block to be interleaved (ie, for each bit input to the encoder, two bits are taken from the encoder).
Using the Deep WALE waveform, the coded and interleaved PDU bits are sent four at a time. Each set of four bits (a “quad-bit”) is used to select one of the 16-element Walsh sequences, the selected 16-element Walsh sequence is then repeated 4 times to yield a 64-element Walsh sequence. Each 64-element channel symbol is scrambled using 64 8PSK symbols of a scrambling sequence generated using a 159-bit shift register with a single tap after bit 31 which run without re-initialization for all PDUs in a transmission (the shift register is initializated only at the beginning of a the Deep ALE transmission) (2).
Therefore a (coded and interleaved) 192-bit WALE PDU resolves in 48 "quad-bit" sets each consisting of 64-element Walsh sequence, for a total of 48 * 64 = 3072 PSK8 symbols, and has a duration of 1280 ms (Known Symbols segments are not sent in Deep WALE PDUs, so Walsh coded data symbols are sent continuously after the initial preamble).

 

The lack of mini-probe shapes in the PDU portion and its 1630 ms duration (figure 2) allow to Id a Deep WALE modulation. Unfortunately, the autocorrelation of the signal is not of much help. Given that the scrambling shift register x^159+x^31+1:

• is iterated 16 times between the generation of each scrambling symbol
• run without re-initialization(!) for all PDUs in a transmission
• has a max sequence length of 2^159 -1
• is used to scramble a small number of PDUs (if not only one)

it will be impossible to get repetitions in the portion of the WALE PDU but - obviously - only the strong 40 ms spikes due to the 96-symbol blocks of the capture probe (figure 4).

Fig. 4 - ACF values of the scanning call and WALE pdu portions

However, it should be noted that the 1630 ms duration of the Deep WALE PDU does not match the expected 1520 ms one (240 preamble + 1280 data): thus, there is somewhere an "extra" duration of 110 ms. In this regard, figure 6 shows a short segment "S" where, although the lack of the 1800 Hz carrier (or not detected/detectable by SA), the signal is still actually keyed at 2400 symbols/sec; also notice that in place of the carrier rather fairly solid "diagonal traces" show up. 

Fig. 6

Looking at the time durations in figure 7, the segment "S" lasts ~350 ms and "positionally" it coincides with the preamble preceding the Request PDU data: here it's the reason of the extra 110 ms duration, ie an "extended" 350 ms (240+110) preamble which consists of 840 PSK8 symbols that - anyway - does not resolve into an integer number of Walsh modulated symbols! (188-141D #G.5.1.7.1 specifies a 18 Walsh modulated symbols preamble).

Fig. 7

Such discrepancies between the actual on-air signals and the relevant standard have already been highlighted in the Fast WALE PDUs, at least in the ones that I had the chance to analyze [2]. It must be noted that the recent releases of 188-110D and 188-141D extend the max bandwidth to 48 KHz therefore 110C/141C compliant waveforms are in some way a bit "obsoleted" as well as HF modems such as Harris RF-5800 (WBALE & WHARQ waveforms), RapidM RM10 and others. What do I mean? My point is that probably we are dealing with a proprietary implementation/enhancement of the latest WBHF standards (ALE and traffic waveforms): given the quite long monitoring available (more than 30 GB of recordings to review), further analysis and investigations will follow in next posts.

https://disk.yandex.com/d/oBD93dy4dY3BeA 

(1) In 2G and 3G-ALE the address of the called station is contained in the scanning call, thus all stations that are not included in the call are free to resume scanning. The 4G-ALE scanning call consists of repeated blocks of known symbols so that a station must wait for the final Request PDU  to find out if it's the recipient of the call:

That choice of unaddressed scanning calls has interesting consequences:

• all scanning stations are captured and held until the WALE Request PDU (which contains the address) is received. This is a drawback, but the short dwell time (200 ms) results in short scanning calls, so this is mitigated;

• because it does not contain station addresses, the capture probe of the async call is not encrypted.

 

(2) the same (159,31) scrambling polynomial and Walsh sequences are used in MIL-STD 188-110C for the Waveform ID-0

[1] https://i56578-swl.blogspot.com/2021/02/4g-ale-async-two-way-point-to-point.html
[2] https://i56578-swl.blogspot.com/2021/01/4g-ale-fast-wale-188-141d-and-wbhf.html